History Is Brimming With Great Accomplishments And Great...

History is brimming with great accomplishments and great mistakes. Thomas Edison once replied when asked why he continued working after so many failures, â€Å"I didn t fail, I found 10,000 ways that didn t work.† This is a contrary view to the ignorant being condemned to repeating the past. People who are familiar with the past simply do not make the same mistakes. Of course they wouldn t because they know how NOT to accomplish their goals. Another way of looking at the past is tan alternate phrase, â€Å"Hindsight is 20/20.† It captures the idea that past mistakes were made and remains ambiguous whether those mistakes will or will not be made during similar future events. The Closing of the Thompson Street Pool doesn t exactly fall under the category of something that those who are ignorant of the past being doomed to repeat unless you consider the outcome and what was done to reach it. The only people who could learn anything from it are the government officia ls in charge of the budget, but let s face it, the government never learns from it s mistakes. If that were the case, our government would work on fixing our own financial problems before sending billions of dollars overseas to rebuild countries that we were at war with after EVERY war. Shouldn t the people who pay the taxes have some say in where that money goes? If I have to work to pay the government, I would like to know why my money is going to Iraq to force them to establish a government in America sShow MoreRelatedI Hear America Singing By Walt Whitman2049 Words   |  9 Pages In Walt Whitman’s poem â€Å"I Hear America Singing†, one is exposed to an America seen by the eyes of a poet, essayist and journalist during the years of one of the most important times in American history, the Civil War. From 1819 to 1892, Whitman lived through many experiences, including the atrocities and successions of the Civil War, which not only lead to the establishment of hi s multiple accredited works, but also, the creation of the prideful, positive, jubilant image of America and its citizensRead MoreLet Every Nation Know - Worksheet Answers1841 Words   |  8 Pagesstand and fight, not be an innocent bystander in the legislative process (from speech and pg. 22). He also called the current President tired and perplexed; out of touch with WWII vets. â€Å"He [Eisenhower] was detached at a time when the country was brimming with vigor†¦ When times demanded focus, he was aimless† (speech). In defense to the attacks of his Catholic faith, JFK asked this rhetorical question; â€Å"I’m able to serve in congress, and my brother was able to give his life, but we can’t be presidentRead MoreSAT Top 30 Essay Evidence18536 Words   |  75 Pages................................................. 31 Lord of the Flies, by William Golding (Murderous schoolboys stranded on an island!) ......................... 33 The Great Gatsby, by F. Scott Fitzgerald (The famous American novel) ................................................ 35 Historical Events: The American Great Depression (1929-1930s) ........................................................................................ 37 World War I (1914-1918) ..............................Read MoreFundamentals of Hrm263904 Words   |  1056 PagesStress Interview 163 The Behavioral Interview 164 Realistic Job Previews 164 Conditional Job Offers 165 Background Investigation 165 Medical/Physical Examination 167 Job Offers 168 The Comprehensive Approach 168 WORKPLACE ISSUES: Avoiding Hiring Mistakes 169 Now It’s Up to the Candidate 169 Selection for Self-Managed Teams Reliability 171 Validity 171 Content Validity 171 Construct Validity 172 Criterion-Related Validity 172 Recruiting: A Global Perspective 146 DID YOU KNOW?: Posting Online Rà ©sumà ©s

The Integrity of Humanity Explored in The Tragedy of King...

In our world, there are people like the woman who yells at her children and disciplines them with physical punishment, but also the boy who talks to the student that always sits alone at the lunch table and is socially different than others. Some people may lead a life based upon universally established morals, while others tend to let out a side of their being that is more beastly than human. Humans have the ability to make choices based on reason, while the animals of the earth have only the capacity to choose the best option for their own survival. Human reasoning, both gracious and grave is witnessed in the words of William Shakespeare’s play, The Tragedy of King Lear. Through both provocative and seemingly angelic characters,†¦show more content†¦Belief in the expression of love through action and not flattery or wealth identifies Cordelia as greater than the acquisitive and inconsiderate Lear who proves his deficiency of a moral conscience and that he has room t o deepen his understanding of human worth. A more literal form of nakedness is taken on by Edgar as he lives the seemingly degrading life of a beggar. At his worst, he declares, â€Å"Thou unsubstantial air that I embrace!/ The wretch that thou hast blown unto the worst/ Owes nothing to thy blasts.† (Shakespeare IV. I. 7-9), and realizes that for hope of a more righteous future, sometimes people must be stripped down to the core and be at their worst in order to eliminate deep-rooted habits. This interpretation of Shakespeare’s references to â€Å"nothing† suggests the importance of removing the essentially meaningless aspects of life that hold back the integral traits of humanity, and reveal the treacherous corruption that all humans are capable of. Likewise, the labels of foolishness and wisdom that are placed on characters are a false recognition of identity because of the misconception of what it means to be wise and noble or to be a foolish knave at the bas e of society. King Lear thinks of himself as wise at first, but ironically his fool proves to be wisest and claims that Lear’s actions regarding his daughters have only confirmed his folly. This makes Lear a clear example of what it means to be ignorant to the human ideaShow MoreRelatedKing Lear1057 Words   |  5 PagesShakespeare’s King Lear is a timeless play whose textual integrity lends itself to a variety of interpretations and in exploring the human condition the text remains relevant across a wide range of contexts. It is possible to present the text as exploring and affirming the human condition, where humanity is defined as the ability to love and empathise. However, in the same instance, a nihilist perspective, such as Peter Brooke’s 1971 production of King Lear, challenges this by outlining that humanity as anRead MoreWilliam Shakespeare s Much Ado About Nothing And King Lear3685 Words   |  15 PagesName: Instructors’ Name: Course: Date: Analysis of Shakespeare’s powerful female characters in the play â€Å"Much Ado about Nothing† and â€Å"King Lear Introduction Shakespeare is seen to value the role of women as his plays often portray women as heroines. These women have strong characters that endear them to readers. Readers in our current world, and especially women, are encouraged to be self-assertive in demand for equal treatment in our society. This has been the tradition for women in the Western

Grignard Reagent Free Essays

1598 Organometallics 2009, 28, 1598–1605 CoVer Essay The Grignard Reagents Dietmar Seyferth Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139 ReceiVed February 4, 2009 During the past 100 years the Grignard reagents probably have been the most widely used organometallic reagents. Most of them are easily prepared in ethereal solution (usually diethyl ether or, since the early 1950s, THF) by the reaction of an organic halide with metallic magnesium (eq 1). Table 1. We will write a custom essay sample on Grignard Reagent or any similar topic only for you Order Now Composition of Diethyl Ether Solutions of Various Grignard Reagents at Equilibrium (in mol %), 2RMgX h R2Mg + MgX2a RX in RX + Mg reacn CH3I C2H5I C2H5Br C2H5Cl n-C3H7I n-C3H7Br n-C3H7Cl C6H5I C6H5Br a RMgX 87. 0 43. 0 41. 0 15. 0 24. 0 24. 0 17. 0 38. 0 30. 0 R2Mg ) MgX2 6. 5 28. 5 29. 5 42. 5 38. 0 38. 0 41. 5 31. 0 35. 0 RX + Mg f RMgX (X ) Cl, Br, I) (1) Most of them are stable in ethereal solution (although atmospheric moisture and oxygen should be excluded) and in general are quite reactive. Discovered by Victor Grignard at the University of Lyon in France in 1900,1 their ease of preparation and their broad applications in organic and organometallic synthesis made these new organomagnesium reagents an instant success. The importance of this contribution to synthetic chemistry was recognized very early, and for his discovery Grignard was awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1912. Our cover molecule is the monomeric ethylmagnesium bromide bis(diethyl etherate) (1), whose solid-state molecular structure was determined by an X-ray diffraction study by Lloyd Guggenberger and Robert Rundle in 1964 using crystals isolated from a diethyl ether solution of a C2H5Br/Mg reaction mixture by slow cooling with a stream of cold gaseous nitrogen. 2-4 Adapted from: Schlenk, W. , Jr. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1931, 64, 734. Wilhelm Schlenk and his son discovered 80 years ago, more than one magnesium-containing species exists in the diethyl ether solution of a Grignard reagent. 5 A redistribution of the substituents on magnesium takes place, and the RMgX species ends up in equilibrium with the two symmetrical species, the diorganomagnesium and the magnesium dihalide: the â€Å"Schlenk Equilibrium† (eq 2). 2RMgX h R2Mg + MgX2 (2) Generally written as â€Å"RMgX† in textbooks, monographs and research papers, the Grignard reagents in ethereal solution are more complicated than this simple formula indicates. As (1) (a) Grignard, V. Compt. rend. Hebd. Seances Acad. Sci. 1900, 130, ? 1322. (b) Grignard, V. Dissertation â€Å"Theses sur les combinaisons organo` magnesie nes mixtes et leur application a des syntheses†, University of Lyon, ` ` Lyon, France, 1901. (2) (a) Guggenberger, L. J. ; Rundle, R. E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1964, 86, 5344. (b) Guggenberger, L. J. ; Rundle, R. E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1968, 90, 5375. 3) A crystalline solid, CH3MgI  · (n-C5H11)2O, was isolated and identi? ed as such by elemental analysis (Mg and I) in 1908: Zerewitinoff, Th. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1908, 41, 2244. The oxonium structure The species that contain Mg-halogen bonds can be precipitated from Grignard reagent solutions in diethyl ether by the addition of 1,4-dioxane. An insoluble, polymeric 1,4-dioxane adduct is formed, leaving behind a solution of R2Mg5sa useful preparation of dialkyl- and diarylmagnesium reagents. 6 Wilhelm Schlenk, Jr. analyzed the 1,4-dioxane precipitations from a number of Grignard reagent solutions. Assuming that the precipitation is essentially instantaneous, i. e. , that the calculated R2Mg, MgX2, and RMgX percentages re? ect the ac tual composition of the Grignard reagent solution at equilibrium, Schlenk reported the compositions collected in Table 1. Direct evidence (5) Schlenk, W. ; Schlenk, W. , Jr. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1929, 62, 920. (6) (a) Cope, A. C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1935, 57, 2238. (b) As Erwin Weiss found, evaporation of diethyl ether solutions of methyl- and ethylmagnesium bromide and chloride at reduced pressure followed by heating of the colorless solid residues at ca. 00  °C and 0. 001 mmHg for several hours gave a mixture of the respective pure, solvent-free, polymeric R2Mg compounds and magnesium halides. The solid MgCl2 thus obtained differed from a sample obtained from a MgCl2 melt in that its lattice showed a strong stacking disorder. This form of MgCl2 had an extremely high surface area: Weiss, E. Chem. Ber. 1965, 98, 2805. (7) Schlenk, W. , Jr. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1931, 64, 734 Further additions to the examples in Table 1 were soon thereafter reported by other workers: (a) Noller, C . R. ; Hilmer, F. B. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1932, 54, 2503. (b) Johnson, G. O. Adkins, H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1932, 54, 1943. (c) Cope, A. C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1934, 56, 1578. was written for this compound. Earlier workers had isolated noncrystalline solid samples of etherates, e. g. , C2H5MgI  · (C2H5)2O and RMgI  · 2(C2H5)2O. (4) Other early Grignard reagent crystal structures: (a) Stucky, G. D. ; Rundle, R. E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1964, 86, 4825 (C6H5MgBr  · 2Et2O). (b) Vallino, M. J. Organomet. Chem. 1969, 20, 1 (CH3MgBr  · 3THF). . 10. 1021/om900088z CCC: $40. 75 ? 2009 American Chemical Society Publication on Web 03/16/2009 Organometallics, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2009 1599 Figure 1. Association of several Grignard compounds in tetrahydrofuran (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1969, 91, 3847. ). that solutions of â€Å"CH3MgBr† in diethyl ether contain CH3MgBr and (CH3)2Mg was obtained by Ashby and co-workers by means of 1H NMR spectroscopic measurements at -105  °C. Solutions of â€Å"t-butylmagnesium chloride† in diethyl ether also were studied. 8 The tendency of the halide substituents in the RMgX and MgX2 species present in ethereal solution at equilibrium to form bridges between magnesium atoms, Mg-X-Mg, in a Lewis base/Lewis acid type interaction further complicates the nature of the Grignard reagent in ethereal solvents. In a very thorough study of the association factors of various Grignard reagents in diethyl ether and THF by careful ebullioscopic molecular weight measurements, Eugene Ashby and Frank Walker at the Georgia Institute of Technology found that monomeric, dimeric, and higher oligomeric species were present, depending on the solvent and the halogen and the organic substituents on the magnesium atom. 9 Included in this study along with data for the â€Å"RMgX† solutions were data for a few R2Mg compounds and for the magnesium dihalides. As Figure 1 shows, the observed association factor (the i value is the apparent molecular weight divided by the formula weight of the monoetherate) shows that the Grignard reagents and (C6H5)2Mg are close to monomeric in the relatively strong Lewis basic THF. The picture is quite different in diethyl ether solution (Figures 2 and 3), with association factors of 1 to nearly 4 for solute concentrations up to ca. 3 molal. It is not clear what these i values mean in terms of the actual species present in these solutions. On the assumption that the Schlenk equilibrium is operative in all cases, in view of the presence of a signi? cant concentration of MgX2, one cannot expect only simple solvated species of type i(R)Mg-X] n [ i (average n ) i). Toney and Stucky isolated crystals of a dimeric species, 2, from a solution of â€Å"C2H5MgBr† in di-n-butyl ether by addition of this solution to triethylamine. 10 The molecular Figure 2. Association of alkylmagnesium chlorides in diethyl ether. Demonstration of importance of halogen vs R group in determining the form of association in diethyl ether (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1969, 91, 3848. ). Figure 3. Association of several alkyl- and arylmagnesium bromides and iodides and related magnesium compounds in diethyl ether (J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1969, 91, 3848. ). structure, as determined by X-ray analysis, contained a double Br bridge with the ethyl groups in a trans arrangement. That (8) In â€Å"CH3MgBr† solutions in diethyl ether: (a) Ashby, E. C. ; Parrish, G. ; Walker, F. Chem. Commun. 1969, 1464. (b) â€Å"(CH3)3CMgCl† solutions in diethyl ether at-26  °C: Parris, G. ; Ashby, E. C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1971, 93, 1206. (9) (a) Walker, F. W. ; Ashby, E. C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1969, 91, 3845. (b) Ashby, E. C. Bull. Soc. Chim. Fr. 1972, 2133 (review, in English). (c) Meisenheimer, J. ; Schlichenmaier. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1928, 61 (an earlier, similar, but more limited study in diethyl ether). more complicated structures can be present in an â€Å"RMgX† solution in diethyl ether was demonstrated by the determination of the X-ray crystal structure of a crystalline compound obtained from a THF solution of â€Å"C2H5MgCl† of composition C2H5Mg2Cl3. This compound was not a simple Cl-bridged dimer, as the empirical formula might suggest. Actually, it was a tetramer (Figure 4) in which the Mg atoms have a coordination number greater than 4. 1 There is a caveat, however: the species that crystallizes from a Grignard reagent solution does not necessarily directly re? ect what species are swimming around in the solution. The crystalline solid shown in Figure 4 could well have self-assembled during the crystallization process by combination of two molecules of the C2H5Mg2Cl3 dimer and not been present in solution at all. Even in the case of monomeric â€Å"RMgX† in THF solution, the Schlenk equilibrium will be operative and the strongly Lewis basic THF apparently prevents halide bridging between Mg atoms. Consequently, the (10) Toney, J. ; Stucky, G. D. Chem. Commun. 1967, 1168. (11) Toney, J. ; Stucky, G. D. J. Organomet. Chem. 1971, 28, 5. 1600 Organometallics, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2009 Scheme 1 Figure 4. Molecular structure of [C2H5Mg2Cl3(C4H8O)3]2, a tetrameric Grignard reagent. Modi? ed from Toney and Stucky (J. Organomet. Chem. 1971, 28, 15. (copyright 1971, with permission from Elsevier)). presence of monomeric RMgX, R2Mg, and MgX2, all solvated, would result in the measurement of an association factor of 1, as Walker and Ashby observed. There are so many factors that bear on the question of the constitution of a given Grignard reagent in ethereal solutionsthe Lewis basicity and steric properties of the ether solvent, the electronegativity and size of the halogen atom in RMgX, the nature and steric properties of the organic substituent on the magnesium atom. These will affect the magnitude of the equilibrium constant of the Schlenk equilibrium and the extent of Mg-X-Mg bridging. For most applications in synthetic chemistry it will suf? ce to take the easy way outsto regard and to write the Grignard reagent as RMgX. There is another interesting and useful property of ethereal Grignard reagent solutions. The magnesium species are weak electrolytes in such solvents of low dielectric constant, and â€Å"RMgX† solutions conduct an electric current. 12 The electrolysis of solutions of organomagnesium halides was studied in some detail by Kondyrew at the State Research Institute in Leningrad13 and by Ward Evans and his students at Northwestern University. 14 During the electrolysis, magnesium species migrate both to the cathode and to the anode. Scheme 1 shows the simplest picture based on RMgX. Metallic magnesium is formed at the cathode. 12) The earliest report appears to be a 1912 French paper: Jolibois, P. Compt. rend. Hebd. Seances Acad. Sci. 1912, 155, 213. See also: Nelson, ? J. M. ; Evans, W. V. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1917, 39, 82. (13) (a) Kondyrew, N. W. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1925, 58, 459. (b) Kondyrew, N. W. ; Manojew, D. P. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1925, 58, 464. (c) Kondyrew, N. W. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1928, 61, 208. (d) Kondyrew, N. W. ; Ssusi, A. K. Ber. Dtsch. Chem. Ges. 1929, 62, 1856. (14) The Evans group published many papers in J. Am. Chem. Soc. during the 1933-1942 period. See, for example: (a) Evans, W. V. ; Lee, F. H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1934, 56, 654. (b) Evans, W. V. ; Field, E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1936, 58, 720. (c) Evans, W. V. ; Braithwaite, D. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1939, 61, 898. (d) Evans, W. V. ; Braithwaite, D. ; Field, E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1940, 62, 534. (e) Evans, W. V. ; Pearson, R. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1942, 64, 2865. The alkyl radicals formed at the anode can undergo the usual alkyl radical processes of coupling (to R-R), disproportionation (to RH + R(-H)), or, if the anode is composed of a reactive metal such as zinc, aluminum, cadmium, or lead, they can attack the anode to form an organometallic compound. A graduate student of Evans, David G. Braithwaite, joined the Nalco Chemical Co. after he graduated and developed an electrolytic process for the commercialscale syntheses of tetramethyl- and tetraethyllead antiknock agents in which the respective alkyl Grignard reagents were electrolyzed in a mixed THF/diethylene glycol dimethyl ether solvent system using a lead anode and a steel cathode. 15 The reactions of the Grignard reagents with organic, organometallic, and inorganic substrates and their applications are too numerous and varied to be covered here. Not only do they ? nd extensive use on a small to moderate scale in research laboratories but they also have been prepared and utilized on a large scale in diverse industrial processes. For the most part they react as nucleophilic reagents, as would be expected, on the basis of the polarity of the carbon-magnesium bond, C? –Mg? +. However, they also can undergo electron transfer reactions with appropriate electron-acceptor substrates. They are weak bases capable of deprotonating the stronger weak organic acids such as terminal acetylenes and cyclopentadiene. Their basicity can be enhanced (as can be the basicity of organolithium reagents) by the addition to RMgX solutions in ethers of additives such as hexamethylphosphoric triamide (HMPA) and N-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP) or alkali-metal alkoxides. All such information can be found in books devoted solely or in part to Grignard reagents. 16 Two special topics are of current interest and merit special mention. (1) The preparation of highly functionalized organomagnesium reagents by Paul Knochel and his co-workers at the University of Munich17 by means of halogen-magnesium exchange (e. . , eq 3). The availability of reagents such as 3-8 (which must be utilized at low temperature) has added a new and spectacular dimension to Grignard reagent chemistry. (2) The synthesis of ole? ns, styrenes, 1,3-dienes and biaryl derivatives by the crosscoupling of Grignard reagents with organic halides. The crosscoupling of Grignard reagents with vinylic halides was discovered by Morris Kharasch and Charl es Fuchs at the University of Chicago Organometallics, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2009 1601 Table 2. Transition Metal Halide Catalyzed Homocoupling of Phenylmagnesium Iodidea metal halide FeCl2 CoBr2 NiBr2 RuCl3 RhCl3 PdCl2 OsCl3 IrCl3 a amt, mol 0. 01 0. 01 0. 03 0. 0036 0. 0036 0. 00566 0. 00275 0. 003 amt of C6H5MgI, mol 0. 03 0. 03 0. 095 0. 0108 0. 013 0. 0163 0. 007 0. 01 yield of biphenyl, % 98 98 100 99 97. 5 98 53 28 Taken from: J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1939, 61, 957. in 1943 during the classic studies of Kharasch on the chemistry of Grignard reagents in the presence of transition-metal halides. 6b Kharasch and Fuchs found that arylmagnesium bromides in diethyl ether reacted readily with vinylic halides of type RCHdCHX and R2CdCHX (but not CH2dC(R)X) to give styrenes in 50-75% yield when the reactions were carried out in the presence of 5 mol % of CoCl2 (eq 4). 18It was reported that other metal halides (of iron, nickel, and chromium) also were effective catalysts of this cross-coupling reaction. Benzylmagnesium chloride also reacted in this manner with vinyl bromide to give PhCH2 CHdCH2 in 75% yield. Alkylmagnesium halides such as cyclohexyl- and n-butylmagnesium bromide, on the other hand, gave only â€Å"small to negligible† yields of the expected coupling product. The ArMgBrderived biaryl usually was obtained as a byproduct in these reactions. Such homocoupling of arylmagnesium halides in the presence of a transition metal halide as well as copper and silver halides was a known reaction. It had been investigated in 1939 by Gilman and Lichtenwalter, who found that aryl Grignard reagents undergo homocoupling in the presence of ca. 0 mol % of various transition-metal halides in diethyl ether solution to give the respective biaryl in high yield in most cases (eq 5, Table 2). 19 The metal halide, in addition to being the needed catalyst precursor, also served as an oxidizing agent and, in some cases (CoBr2, NiCl2, RhCl3), formation of a black solid indicated complete reduction to the metal. not occur in the absence of the organic halide but in its presence was vigorously exo thermic. The added organic halide was only partially consumed and did not show up in the biaryl product. When p-bromotoluene was added to a phenylmagnesium bromide/CoCl2 catalyst reaction mixture, only biphenyl was formed. A remarkable reaction! smost likely a free radical process, as Kharasch suggested. The organic halide was believed to function as an oxidizing agent. This interesting, simple, and potentially useful cross-coupling reaction, as exempli? ed in eq 4, was not adopted by the synthetic organic community right away. After a long dormancy it was rediscovered some 30 years later by a number of groups in the USA, Japan, and France, all of whom apparently were not aware of the 1943 Kharasch/Fuchs JACS paper. 1 Transition-metal catalysts other than CoCl2 were used, but the concept and the basic reaction were the same. In 1971 Tamura and Kochi reported a thorough study of the cross-coupling of Grignard reagents with vinylic halides catalyzed by soluble iron species in concentrations of ca. 10-4 M in THF at 0-25  °C. 26,27 Various Fe(III) compounds could be used as Fe catalyst pr ecursors; the best were Fe(III) -diketonates such as Fe(RC(O)CHC(O)R)3 (R ) Ph, CH3, t-Bu). These exothermic reactions were not free radical processes. The reactions of cis- and trans-propenyl bromide proceeded with retention of geometric con? uration (eqs 6 and 7) and were not adversely affected by the presence of 0. 4 M styrene. A ArMgBr + RCHdCHX 9 ArCHdCHR + MgBrX 8 (X ) Cl, Br) CoCl2 5 mol % (4) 2ArMgX + MXn f Ar-Ar + MgX2 + MXn-2 (5) A novel catalytic process for such ArMgX to Ar-Ar coupling was discovered by Kharasch and Fields when ethereal solutions of an aryl Grignard reagent that contained a catalytic amount (3 mol %) of CoCl2 were heated at re? ux for 1 h and then treated with an equivalent amount of an organic halide (C6H5Br, C2H5Br, i-C3H7Cl). 20 The coupling reaction to give Ar-Ar did (15) (a) Bott, L. L. Hydrocarbon Process. Petrol. Re? ner 1965, 44, 115. (b) Guccione, E. Chem. Eng. 1965, (June 21), 102. See also Part 2 of the tetraethyllead essay: (c) Seyferth, D. Organometallics 2003, 22, 5154 (pages 5172-5174). (16) (a) Krause, E. ; von Grosse, A. Die Chemie der metall-organischen Verbindungen; Gebruder Borntrager: Berlin, 1937; pp 14-61, 110-114. ? ? (b) Kharasch, M. S. ; Reinmuth, O. Grignard Reactions of Nonmetallic Substances; Prentice Hall: New York, 1954. (c) Handbook of Grignard Reagents; Silverman, G. S. , Rakita, P. E. , Eds. ; Dekker: New York, 1996. d) Grignard Reagents-New DeVelopments; Richey, H. G. , Ed. ; Wiley: Chichester, New York, 2000. (e) The Chemistry of Organomagnesium Compounds; Rappaport, Z. , Marek, L. , Eds. ; Wiley-VCH: Weinheim, Germany, 2008. (17) Knochel, P. ; Dohle, W. ; Gommermann, N. ; Kneisel, F. F. ; Kopp, F. ; Korn, T. ; Sapountzis, J. ; Vu, V. A. Angew. Chem. , Int. Ed. 2003, 42, 4302 (review). (18) Kharasch, M. S. ; Fuchs, C. F. J. Am. Chem . Soc. 1943, 65, 504. (19) Gilman, H. ; Lichtenwalter, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1939, 61, 957. and earlier (back to 1914) references cited therein. 20) Kharasch, M. S. ; Fields, E. K. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1941, 63, 2316. mechanism involving an organoiron(I) intermediate, obtained by reduction of the Fe(III) precursor by the Grignard reagent, was suggested. The results of a few experiments carried out on a 30-40 mmol scale (Table 3) showed that such iron-catalyzed reactions would be useful in the synthesis of ole? ns, but a broader study to optimize them and to broaden the scope of their application was not undertaken. The coupling of vinylic Grignard reagents with alkyl halides is catalyzed also by Ag(I) salts. 8 Thus, cis-propenylmagnesium (21) Two later â€Å"historical notes†22,23 and two book chapters24,25 that dealt with the cross-coupling reactions of Grignard reagents with vinylic halides also did not cite the Kharasch/Fuchs paper. (22) Tamao, K. J. Organomet. Chem. 2002, 653 , 27. (23) Murahashi, S. -I. J. Organomet. Chem. 2002, 653, 27. (24) Kochi, J. K. Organometallic Mechanisms and Catalysis; Academic Press: New York, 1978; Chapter 14, Sections III and IV. (25) Hou, S. ; Negishi, E. -i. In Handbook of Organopalladium Chemistry; Negishi, E. -i. , Ed. , Wiley: New York, 2002; Vol. 1,Chapter III. 2. 6, pp 335408. As a historical note, the following quotation from this reference (p 335) is of interest: â€Å"Although the reaction of Grignard reagents with organic halides was shown to be catalyzed by various late transition metal compounds (the Kharasch reaction) in the 1950s, it was not until the early 1970s that the applicability of this catalytic method was extended to the cross-coupling involving alkenyl and aryl halides catalyzed by Ag, Fe and other late transition metals. † (26) (a) Kochi, J. ; Tamura, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1971, 93, 1487. (b) Tamura, M. ; Kochi, J. Synthesis, 1971, 303. (27) Full papers: (a) Neumann, S. M. ; Kochi, J. K. J. Org. Chem. 1975, 40, 599. (b) Smith, R. S. ; Kochi, J. K. J. Org. Chem. 1976, 41, 502. (c) Reviews: ref 24. (d) Kochi, J. K. J. Organomet. Chem. 2002, 653, 11 (historical note). (28) (a) Whitesides, G. M. ; Casey, C. P. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1966, 88, 4541. (b) Tamura, M. ; Kochi, J. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1971, 93, 1483. 1602 Organometallics, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2009 Table 3. Alkenylation of Grignard Reagents using FeCl3 as Precatalyst (in THF)a R MgBr (amt, mmol) n-C6H13MgBr (40) CH2dCH(CH2)4MgBr (36) n-C6H13MgBr (40) a 1 R2Br (amt, mmol) CH2dCHBr (204) CH2dCHBr (102) CH3CHdCHBr (355) FeCl3 (amt, mmol) 0. 05 0. 05 0. 10 reacn temp,  °C 0 25 25 product (yield, %) n-C6H13CHdCH2 (83) CH2dCH(CH2)4CHdCH2 (64) n-C6H13CHdCHCH3 (67) (53/47 cis/trans mixture) Taken from: Synthesis 1971, 6, 303. Scheme 2 bromide reacted with methyl bromide in THF in the presence of an Ag(I) catalyst to give cis-butene-2, but a similar reaction of trans-propenylmagnesium bromide gave a 7:3 mixture of cisand trans-butene-2, respectively. 28b Apparently propenyl radicals were involved. A similar Grignard reagent based cross-coupling, ole? n synthesis in which a copper(I) catalyst was used was published by French workers. 9 Normant et al. reported that their reactions (e. g. , n-Bu(Et)CdCHI + i-PrMgCl in THF at -20  °C with a Cu(I) catalyst) proceeded with retention of con? guration. 29a For a reaction of CH3CHdC(CH3)MgCl with n-C3H7I in THF at 0  °C using CuI as catalyst, Linstrumelle reported that the coupling product obtained in 97% yield was 88% cis and 12% trans, while a similar reac tion of CH2dC(CH3)MgBr with trans-n-C6H13CHdCHI gave a 4:1 trans/cis product. 29b TheuseofNi(II)catalystprecursorsforGrignardreagent-vinylic halide cross-coupling was reported in 1972 by Corriu and Masse30 and by Tamao, Sumitani, and Kumada. 1 The French group found Ni(II) acetylacetonate to be the most effective catalyst precursor, while the Japanese group favored a bis(tertiary phosphine)NiCl2 catalyst precursor and, especially, chelating diphosphine complexes such as (Ph2PCH2CH2PPh2)NiCl2. Reactions carried out in diethyl ether at re? ux generally gave excellent yields. This procedure has been carried out commercially on an industrial scale in the preparation of p-chloroand p-tert-butylstyrene. 32 Finally, the last to be discovered at that time and the most versatile procedure for the cross-coupling of Grignard reagents (29) (a) Normant, J. F. Commercon, A. ; Cahiez, G. ; Villieras, J. Compt. ? rend. Hebd. Seances Acad. Sci. , Ser. C 1974, 278, 967. (b) Derguini? Boumechal, F. ; Linstrumelle, G. Tetrahedron Lett. 1976, 3225. (30) Corriu, R. J. P. ; Masse, J. P. J. Chem. Soc. , Chem. Commun. 1972, 144. (31) (a) Tamao, K. ; Sumitani, K. ; Kumada, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1972, 94, 1375. (b) See also ref 22. Later work: (c) Tamao, K. ; Kiso, Y. ; Sumitani, K. ; Kumada, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1972, 94, 9268. (d) Kiso, Y. ; Tamao, K. ; Kumada, M. J. Organomet. Chem. 1973, 50, C12. (e) Kiso, Y. ; Tamao, K. ; Miyake, N. ; Yamamoto, K. ; Kumada, M. Tetrahedron Lett. 974, (No. 1), 3. (f) Tamao, K. ; Sumitani, K. ; Kiso, Y. ; Zembayashi, M. ; Fujioka, A. ; Kodama, S. ; Nakajima, I. ; Minato, A. ; Kumada, M. Bull. Chem. Soc. Jpn. 1976, 49, 1958. (g) Tamao, K. ; Kodama, S. ; Nakajima, I. ; Kumada, M. ; Minato, A. ; Suzuki, K. Tetrahedron 1982, 38, 3347. (32) Banno, T. ; Hayakawa; Umeno, M. J. Organomet. Chem. 2002, 653, 288. (33) (a) Yamamura, M. ; Moritani, I. ; Murahashi, S. -I. J. Organomet. Chem. 1975, 91, C39. Full paper: (b) Murahashi, S. -I. ; Yamamura, M. ; Yanagisaw a, K. -i. ; Mita, N. ; Kondo, K. J. Org. Chem. 1979, 44, 2408. (c) Historical note: ref 23. ith vinylic and aryl halides, that catalyzed by palladium complexes, was reported by Shun-Ichi Murahashi and coworkers in 1975. 33a The reactions were carried out in diethyl ether/benzene at room temperature using (Ph3P)4Pd as the catalyst precursor, and they proceeded stereospeci? cally in excellent yield (Scheme 2). Dang and Linstrumelle also used this procedure to prepare 1,3-dienes stereospeci? cally by the reaction of vinylic iodides with vinylic Grignard reagents. 34 Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling of Grignard reagents with organic halides has been a very active area in organic synthesis. Reference 25 reviews (up to 2002) its application in (alkenyl) MgX-ArX, ArMgX-(alkenyl)X, and (alkenyl)MgX-(alkenyl)X coupling processes. A further chapter in this book deals with ArMgX-Ar? X coupling. 35 Another surge of research activity on cross-coupling of Grignard reagents with organic halides started around the turn of the century and still appears to be in progress at the present time (January 2009). Interest has revived in the use of iron complexes as precatalysts for the cross- and homocoupling of Grignard reagents,36 since iron complexes are cheaper than those of palladium and are nontoxic. The iron-catalyzed cross-coupling of organomagnesium bromides with vinylic bromides, although it produced ole? ns in good yield, was of interest to Jay Kochi, as noted above, primarily from the point of view of its reaction mechanism rather than of its potential for application in organic synthesis. After some 25 years several research groups carried out much experimental work which has shown iron-catalyzed cross-coupling and homocoupling of Grignard reagents to be broadly applicable and very useful additions to the methods of organic synthesis. In 1995 Gerard Cahiez, at the Universite Pierre et Marie Curie ? ? in Paris, during the course of his extensive investigations of organomanganese chemistry, found that the cross-coupling of vinylic bromides with alkyl, vinylic, and phenylmanganese chlorides could be effected in good yield in the presence of 3 mol % of iron(III) acetylacetonate in a THF/N-methyl-2pyrrolidinone (NMP) mixed solvent at room temperature. 37 In a thorough study, this reaction was extended to the crosscoupling of vinylic halides with alkylmagnesium halides using 1 mol % of Fe(acac)3 and the same solvent mixture. 8 High yields of ole? nic products were obtained. Successful crosscoupling of Grignard reagents with AcO(CH2)6CHdCHCl, CH3C(O)(CH2)3CHdCHCl, Cl(CH2)4CBrdCH2, 9, and 10 are noteworthy as examples of the selectivity and functional group tolerance of this reaction. The scope of this chemistry was extended further when some of Knochel’s functionally substituted aryl Grignard reagents17 (vide supr a) were reacted with vinylic bromides and iodides. 39 The cross-coupling reaction between aryl Grignard reagents and vinylic bromides and iodides also was found by Cahiez and co-workers to give ole? ic products in good yield with Organometallics, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2009 1603 Table 4. Iron-Catalyzed Biaryl Coupling Reactions a Table 5. Iron-Catalyzed Homocoupling of Grignard Reagents with Atmospheric Oxygen as Oxidanta a Taken from: J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 13788. palladium or nickel precatalysts. 42 Of these procedures, that of Cahiez et al. 41f appears to be the most useful. Alkyl halide/ alkylmagnesium halide cross-coupling is not a practical process. 43 RMgX + R? X 9 R-R? + MgX2 8 [Fe] (8) Iron-catalyzed reactions of aryl Grignard reagents with aryl halides to give biaryls generally are not synthetically useful. The desired cross-coupling products are obtained in only poor yield, the main product being the homocoupled biaryl derived from the aryl Grignard reagent (eq 9) (recall the Gilman/ Lichtenwalter and Kharasch/Fields reactions, vide supra). ArMgX + Ar? X f Ar-Ar? + (low yield) (major Ar-Ar product) (9) a Taken from: J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 9844. retention of geometric con? guration when carried out in THF solution in the presence of 10 mol % of MnCl2. 0 As noted above, Kharasch and Fuchs had found that attempts to cross-couple aryl Grignard reagents with alkyl halides in the presence of catalytic amounts of CoCl2 were unsuccessful. On the other hand, such reactions do occur in the presence of an iron precatalyst and various additives (eq 8, R? ) alkyl), as summarized in ref 36. A number of other groups have reported the results of their research directed tow ard development of an effective procedure for the process shown in eq 8, all using an iron precatalyst of one kind or another, various additives such as TMEDA, NMP, etc. nd generally diethyl ether (but sometimes THF) as solvent. 41 It is noteworthy that primary and secondary alkyl halides, i. e. , ones that contain hydrogen substituents on the carbon atom, can be cross-coupled with aryl Grignard reagents, a process that cannot be realized using (34) Dang, H. P. ; Linstrumelle, G. Tetrahedron Lett. 1978, 191. (35) Anastasia, L. ; Negishi, E. -i. Chapter II. 2. 5, pp 311-344, in ref 25. (To date palladium and nickel catalysts have been widely used to effect aryl-aryl cross-coupling reactions. However, arylmagnesium halides were found to undergo cross-coupling with aryl halides that contain electron-withdrawing activating substituents ortho or para with respect to the halogen substituent in the presence of 10 mol % of manganese(II) chloride (eq 10). 44 Cyclohexyl and 2-methylpropenyl G rignard reagents reacted with such substituted halobenzenes in a similar manner. Very (36) (a) Cahiez, G. ; Duplais, C. â€Å"Iron-Catalyzed Reactions of Grignard Reagents†, Chapter 13, pp 594-630 in ref 16e. (b) Furstner, A. ; Leitner, ? A. ; Mendez, M. ; Kraus, H. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2002, 124, 13856 (a long ? paper that brings an excellent discussion of the literature, of questions concerning mechanism, and original results). (c) Sherry, B. D. ; Furstner, ? A. Acc. Chem. Res. 2008, 41, 1500. (37) Cahiez, G. ; Marquis, S. Tetrahedron Lett. 1996, 37, 1773. (38) Cahiez, G. ; Avedissian, H. Synthesis 1998, 1199. (39) Dohle, W. ; Kopp, F. ; Cahiez, G. ; Knochel, P. Synlett 2001, 1901. 1604 Organometallics, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2009 Table 6. Manganese-Catalyzed Homocoupling of Grignard Reagents with Atmospheric Oxygen as Oxidanta Scheme 4 THF to a mixture of 3 mol % of FeF3  · 3H2O and 9 mol % of an N-heterocyclic carbene (SIPr  · HCl). In one example, chlorobenzene (1. 0 equiv) and p-CH3C6H4MgBr (1. 2 equiv) were added to this catalyst system and the reaction mixture was stirred at 60  °C for 1 day. The desired product, p-CH3C6H4-C6H5, was obtained in 98% yield. The homocoupling product, biphenyl, was present only in trace amount, while CH3C6H4C6H4CH3 was formed in 3% yield. Some examples of the application of this remarkable reaction are shown in Table 4. Good results were obtained only with aryl chlorides. Aryl bromides and iodides gave low biaryl yields. A German group reported similar MnCl2-catalyzed cross-coupling between various heterocyclic chlorides and aryl as well as alkyl Grignard reagents: e. g. , eq 11. 46 a Taken from: J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 13788. The homocoupling reaction of aryl Grignard reagents, mentioned earlier, also has received renewed attention recently, and synthetically useful procedures have resulted. Nagano and Hayashi developed a procedure in which the reaction is carried out in re? uxing diethyl ether in the presence of 1-5 mol % of FeCl3, NMP and 1. molar equiv of 1,2-dichloroethane (which serves as the oxidant). 47 Cahiez and co-workers have improved this procedure by using THF as solvent, in which arylmagnesium halides, including the chlorides, are more easily prepared. 48 This procedure works well with Knochel’s functional arylmagnesium halides (Scheme 3). Of interest also is the clever construction of the tricyclic system 11 by intramolecul ar homocoupling (Scheme 4). (40) (a) Cahiez, G. ; Gager, O. ; Lecomte, F. Org. Lett. 2008, 10, 5255. (b) Alami, M. ; Ramiandrasoa, P. ; Cahiez, G. Synlett 1998, 325. 41) A selection: (a) Martin, R. ; Furstner, A. Angew. Chem. , Int. Ed. ? 2004, 43, 3955 (see also ref 36b and references cited therein). (b) Nagano, T. ; Hayashi, T. Org. Lett. 2004, 6, 1297. (c) Bedford, R. B. ; Bruce, D. W. ; Frost, R. M. ; Goodby, J. W. ; Hird, M. Chem. Commun. 2004, 2822. (d) Nakamura, N. ; Matsuo, K. ; Ito, S. ; Nakamura, E. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2004, 126, 3686. (e) Bedford, R. B. ; Bruce, D. W. ; Frost, R. M. ; Hird, M. Chem. Commun. 2005, 4161. (f) Cahiez, G. ; Habiak, V. ; Duplais, C. ; Moyeux, A. Angew. Chem. , Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 4364. g) Cahiez, G. ; Duplais, C. ; Moyeux, A. Org. Lett. 2007, 9, 3253. (h) Guerinot, A. ; Reymond, S. ; Cossy, J. Angew. ? Chem. , Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 6521. (42) However, Terao and Kambe have recently developed new Pd- and Ni-based precatalyst systems which avoid the pro blem of -elimination of primary and secondary alkyl groups: Terao, J. ; Kambe, M. Acc. Chem. Res. 2008, 41, 1545. (43) (a) Tamura, M. ; Kochi, J. J. Organomet. Chem. 1971, 31, 289. (b) Rollick, K. L. ; Nugent, W. A. ; Kochi, J. K. J. Organomet. Chem. 1982, 225, 279. (44) Cahiez, G. ; Lepifre, F. Ramiandrasoa, P. Synthesis 1999, 2138. (45) Hatakeyama, T. ; Nakamura, M. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 9844. (46) Rueping, M. ; Ieawsuwan, W. Synlett 2007, 247. (47) Nagano, T. ; Hiyama, T. Org. Lett. 2005, 7, 491. (48) Cahiez, G. ; Chaboche, C. ; Mahuteau-Betzer, F. Org. Lett. 2005, 7, 1943. Scheme 3 special, but generally applicable, reaction conditions developed by Japanese workers45 have ? nally provided the possibility of clean aryl-aryl cross-coupling reactions in which competitive homocoupling of the aryl Grignard reagent has been almost completely suppressed. In this procedure an active catalyst system was prepared by addition of 18 mol % of C2H5MgBr in Organometallics, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2009 1605 A further improvement resulted when it was found that atmospheric oxygen could replace the 1,2-dihaloethane as oxidant in the homocoupling of aryl, vinylic, and alkynyl Grignard reagents using either Fe or Mn catalyst precursors. 49 As Tables 5 and 6 show, this procedure gave excellent results. The most recent contribution to iron-catalyzed cross-coupling, which appeared during the preparation of the ? al draft of this paper, involves application of the old one-pot Barbier procedure in which FeCl3 served as precatalyst and stoichiometric amounts of magnesium turnings and TMEDA additive were used. A mixture of an alkyl and an aryl bromide was added to the mixture of precatalyst, TMEDA, magnesium, and solvent at 0  °C. Good yields of cross-coupled products were obtained. 50 There has been a great deal of activity in the areas of Grignard reagent/o rganic halide cross-coupling and aryl Grignard reagent homocoupling, and the coverage in this essay, whose focus is on the historical aspects, is far from exhaustive. Attention is called to the 2005 review by Frisch and Beller51 and especially (49) Cahiez, G. ; Moyeux, A. ; Buendia, J. ; Duplais, C. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2007, 129, 13789. (50) Czaplik, W. M. ; Mayer, M. ; von Wangelin, A. J. Angew. Chem. , Int. Ed. 2009, 48, 607. (51) Frisch, A. C. ; Beller, M. Angew. Chem. , Int. Ed. 2005, 44, 674. to the recent Accounts of Chemical Research special issue on cross-coupling. 52 Since ? st reported in 1943, the cross-coupling of Grignard reagents with organic halides, thanks to further development by many later workers, has become a broadly applicable, very useful reaction in organic synthesis. There is much more about Grignard reagents that I have not covered: the various procedures used in their preparation, the mechanism of their formation (which is still controversial), the more complex organomagnesium compounds such as bis(cyclopentadienyl)magnesium, magnesium butadiene, and magnesium anthracene, and the many kinds of reactions that Grignard reage nts have been reported to undergo. But this is only a short essay, and so I have been able to cover only a few selected topics, ones which I hope will be of interest to the reader. More information can be found in the books that I have cited earlier. 16 Acknowledgment. My thanks, as always, to Professor Arnold L. Rheingold for the cover ? gure. OM900088Z (52) Acc. Chem. Res. 2008, 41, No. 11, 1439-1564, special issue. A collection of 11 reviews, many of them relevant to the subject matter of the present essay, with useful, up-to-date references. How to cite Grignard Reagent, Papers

The Atlantic System and Africa free essay sample

The Atlantic System and Africa, 1550-1800 10. Plantations in the West Indies AY. Colonization Before 1650 * 10. Spanish settlers introduced sugar-cane cultivation into the West Indies shortly after 1 500 but did not do much else toward the further development of the islands. After 1600 the F-ranch and English developed colonies based on tobacco cultivation. * 20. Tobacco consumption became popular in England in the early 16005. Tobacco production in the West Indies was stimulated by two new developments: the formation of chartered companies and the availability of cheap labor in the form of European indentured servants. 30. In the mid-sass competition from milder Virginia tobacco and the expulsion of experienced Dutch sugar producers from Brazil combined to bring the West Indian economies from tobacco to sugar production. * 40. The Portuguese had introduced sugar-cane cultivation to Brazil, and the Dutch West India Company, chartered to bring the Dutch wars against Spain to the New World, had taken control of 1 ,OOH miles of sugar-producing Brazilian coast. We will write a custom essay sample on The Atlantic System and Africa or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Over a fifteen-year period the Dutch improved the efficiency f the Brazilian sugar industry and brought slaves from Elmira and Land (also seized from Portugal)to Brazil and the West Indies. 50. When Portugal reconnected Brazil in 1 654, the Dutch sugar planters brought the Brazilian system to the French and English Caribbean Islands. BOO. Sugar and Slaves * 10. Between 1640 and the sass colonies like Guadalupe, Martinique, and particularly Barbados made the transition from a tobacco economy to a sugar economy. In the process of doing so, their demand for labor caused a sharp and significant increase in the volume of the Atlantic slave trade. 0.The shift from European indentured servants to enslaved African labor was caused by a number of factors, including a decline in the numbers of Europeans willing to indenture themselves to the West Indies, the fact that the life expectancy of a slave after landing was longer than the term of the typical contract of indenture, and a rise in sugar prices that made planters more able to invest in slaves. 110. Plantation Life in the Eighteenth Century AY. Technology and Environment * 10. Sugar plantations both grew sugar cane and processed the cane into sugar crystals, molasses, and rum.The technology for growing and harvesting cane was simple, but the machinery required for processing (rollers, copper kettles, and so on) was more complicated and expensive. The expenses Of sugar production led planters to seek economies of scale by running large plantations. * 20. Sugar production damaged the environment by causing soil exhaustion and deforestation. Repeated cultivation of sugar cane exhausted the soil of the plantations and led the planters to open new fields, thus accelerating the deforestation that had begun under the Spanish. * 30.European colonization led to the introduction of European and African lands and animals that crowded out indigenous species. Colonization also pushed the Arrack and then the Carob people to extinction. BOO. Slaves Lives * 10. West Indian society consisted of a wealthy land-owning plutocracy, their many slaves, and a few people in between. * 20. A plantation had to extract as much labor as possible from its slaves in order to turn a profit. Slaves were organized into gangs for fieldwork, while those male slaves not doing fieldwork were engaged in specialized tasks. * 30.Slaves were rewarded for good work and punished harshly for failure to meet their reduction quotas or for any form of resistance. On Sundays, slaves cultivated their own food crops and did other chores; they had very little rest and relaxation, no education, and little time or opportunity for family life. * 40. Disease, harsh working conditions, and dangerous mill machinery all contributed to the short life expectancy of slaves in the Caribbean. The high mortality rate added to the volume of the Atlantic slave trade and meant that the majority of slaves on West Indian plantations were born in Africa. 50. Slaves frequently ran away and occasionally staged violent rebellions such as hat led by a slave named Tacky in Jamaica in 1760. European planters sought to prevent rebellions by curtailing African cultural traditions, religions, and languages. CO. Free Whites and Free Blacks * 10. In Saint Dominion there were three groups of free people: the wealthy great whites, the less-well-off little whites, and the free blacks. In the British colonies, where sugar almost completely dominated the economy, there were very few free small landholders, white or black. 20. Only a very wealthy man could afford the capital to invest in the land, machinery, and slaves needed to establish a sugar plantation. West Indian planters were very wealthy and translated their wealth into political power, controlling the colonial assemblies and even gaining a number of seats in the British Parliament. ;k 30. Slave owners who fathered children by female slaves often gave both mother and child their freedom; over time, this practice (manumission) produced a significant free black population. Another source of free black population was runaway slaves, known in the Caribbean as maroons. 1110. Creating the Atlantic Economy AY. Capitalism and Mercantilism * 10. The system of royal monopoly control of colonies and their trade as recited by Spain and Portugal in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries proved to be inefficient and expensive. In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the two new institutions of capitalism and mercantilism established the framework within which government-protected private enterprise participated in the Atlantic economy. 20 . The mechanisms of early capitalism included banks, joint-stock companies, stock exchanges, and insurance. * 30. Mercantilism was a number of state policies that promoted private investment in overseas trade and accumulation of capital in the form of precious metals. The instruments of mercantilism included chartered companies, such as the Dutch West India Company and the French Royal African Company, and the use of military force to pursue commercial dominance. * 40.The French and English eliminated Dutch competition from the Americas by defeating the Dutch in a series of wars between 1652 and 1678. The French and the English then revoked the monopoly privileges of their chartered companies, but continued to use high tariffs to prevent foreigners from gaining access to trade with their colonies. The Atlantic became the major trading area for the British, the French, and the Portuguese n the eighteenth century. 80. The Atlantic Circuit * 10.The Atlantic Circuit was a clockwise network of trade routes going from Europe to Africa, from Africa to the plantation colonies Of the Americas (the Middle Passage), and then from the colonies to Europe. If all went well, a ship would make a profit on each leg of the circuit. * 20. The Atlantic Circuit was supplemented by a number of other trade routes: Europe to the Indian Ocean, Europe to the West Indies, New England to the West Indies, and the Triangular Trade between New England, Africa, and the West Indies. 30. As the Atlantic system developed, increased demand for sugar in seventeenth and eighteenth century Europe was associated with an increase in the flow of slaves from Africa to the New World. * 40. The slave trade was a highly specialized business in which chartered companies(in the seventeenth century) and then private traders (in the eighteenth century) purchased slaves in Africa, packed them into specially designed or modified ships, and delivered them for sale to the plantation colonies. * 50.Disease, maltreatment, suicide, and psychological depression all contributed to the average death rate of one out of every six slaves shipped on the Middle Passage. Disease was the single most important cause of death, killing the European crewmen of the slave ships at roughly the same rate as it killed the slaves themselves. VIVO. Africa, the Atlantic, and Islam AY. The Gold Coast and the Slave Coast * 10. European trade with Africa grew tremendously after 1 650 as merchants sought to purchase slaves and other goods.The growth in the slave trade was accompanied by continued trade in other goods, but it did not lead to any significant European colonization Of Africa. 20. African merchants were discriminating about the types and the amounts of merchandise that they demanded in return for slaves and other goods, and they raised the price of slaves in response to increased demand. African governments on the Gold and Slave Coasts were strong enough to make Europeans observe African trading customs, while the Europeans, competing with each other for African trade, were unable to present a strong united bargaining position. 30. Exchange of slaves for firearms contributed to state formation in the Gold and Slave Coasts. The kingdom of Doomed used rearms acquired in the slave trade in order to expand its territory, while the kingdoms of Oho and Sensate had interests both in the Atlantic trade and in overland trade with their northern neighbors. * 40. The African kings and merchants of the Gold and Slave Coasts obtained slaves from among the prisoners of war captured in conflicts between African kingdoms. BOO. The Bight of Bavaria and Angola * 10.There were no sizeable states-?and no large-scale wars-?in the interior of the Bight of Bavaria; kidnapping was the main source of people to sell into slavery. African traders who specialized in procuring people for he slave trade did business at inland markets or fairs and brought the slaves to the coast for sale. * 20. In the Portuguese-held territory of Angola, Afro- Portuguese caravan merchants brought trade goods to the interior and exchanged them for slaves, whom they transported to the coast for sale to Portuguese middlemen, who then sold the slaves to slave dealers for shipment to Brazil.Many of these slaves were prisoners of war, a byproduct generated by the wars of territorial expansion fought by the federation of Landau kingdoms. * 30. Enslavement has also been linked to environ mental rises in the interior of Angola. Droughts forced refugees to flee to kingdoms in better-watered areas, where the kings traded the grown male refugees to slave dealers in exchange for Indian textiles and European goods that they then used to cement old alliances, attract new followers, and build a stronger, larger state. * 40.Although the organization Of the Atlantic trade varied from place to place, it was always based on a partnership between European traders and a few African political and merchant elites who benefited from the trade while many more Africans suffered from it. CO. Africans European ND Islamic Contacts * 10. In the centuries between 1550 and 1800 Europeans built a growing trade with Africa but did not acquire very much African territory. The only significant European colonies were those on islands; the Portuguese in Angola, and the Dutch Cape Colony, which was tied to the Indian Ocean trade rather than to the Atlantic trade. 20. Muslim territorial dominance was much more significant, with the Ottoman Empire controlling all of North Africa except Morocco and with Muslims taking large amounts of territory from Ethiopia. In the 1 sass Morocco attacked the sub-Sahara Muslim mining Of Shanghai, occupying the area for the next two centuries and causing the bulk of the trans-Sahara trade in gold, textiles, leather goods, and kola nuts to shift from the western Sudan to the central Sudan. * 30.The trans-Sahara slave trade was smaller in volume than the Atlantic slave trade and supplied slaves for the personal slave army of the Moroccan rulers as well as slaves for sugar plantation labor, servants, and artisans. The majority of slaves transported across the Sahara were women destined for service as concubines or servants and children, including eunuchs, meant for revive as harem guards. * 40. Muslims had no moral objection to owning or trading in slaves, but religious law forbade the enslavement of fellow Muslims.Even so, some Muslim states south of the Sahara did enslave African Muslims. * 50. Muslim cultural influences south of the Sahara were much stronger than European cultural influences. Islam and the Arabic language spread more rapidly than Christianity and English, which were largely confined to the coastal trading centers. * 60. The European and Islamic slave trade could not have had a significant effect on the overall population of he African continent, but they did have an acute effect on certain areas from which large numbers of people were taken into slavery.The higher proportion of women taken across the Sahara in the Muslim slave trade magnified its long-term demographic effects. 70. The volume Of trade goods imported into sub-Sahara Africa was not large enough to have had any significant effect on the livelihood of traditional African artisans. Both African and European merchants benefited from this trade, but Europeans directed the Atlantic system and derived greater benefit from it than the African merchants did.

Sexism in A Thousand Splendid Suns Essay Example

Sexism in A Thousand Splendid Suns Essay A major theme throughout the novel is sexism and the ideology that men possess complete control over their wives (helped further by the Taliban). A few days after living with Ransheed, Mariam is required to wear a burka as where he comes from a womens face is her husbands business only. This statement objectifies women, likening them to possessions without personality or any individuality. If not for the tone, it could be said that Ransheed wants to free his wife from unwanted glances and snide remarks of another men, that might make her feel uncomfortable. However, no affection or protectiveness is expressed, the burka is simply for his benefit; a way to maintain his pride. The quotation links closely to The Handmaids Tale the handmaids dress code consists of an ankle-length, full, gathered to a flat yoke that extends over the breast and white wings which keep them from seeing but also from being seen showing extreme of objectification. The idea that women can be so indoctrinated indicates they are viewed as not having a mind of their own, free to make their choices, almost like animals (not possessing a higher order of thinking). Ransheed also expresses his distaste when he mentions women come uncoveredlook me in the eye without shame claiming how it embarrasses him to see a man whos lost control of his wife Women are seen as an extension of the husband and if they act inappropriately husbands only care about what it reflects upon them. Women are treated as sub-human, inferior to man, who should dominate; enabling them to mould women as they wish until they become a voiceless being (never expressing their true character), whose purpose is to serve them only. Leading on from this, Ransheed could be said to be struggling for his identity as he feels pressured by society to have a wife that shows utter respect and obedience. Without, he would be classed as weak, thus a nobody. Society norms alone have huge influence o n the struggle for identity. We will write a custom essay sample on Sexism in A Thousand Splendid Suns specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Sexism in A Thousand Splendid Suns specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Sexism in A Thousand Splendid Suns specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Not only does Ransheed dominate his wife, he also physical abuses them downstairs, the beating began it is almost like a ritual and the way it is said so obviously, highlights the horror of the act. Laila names it as methodical, familiar proceedingno cursing, no screamingonly the systematic business of beating and being beatenthump thump the women have no option to accept the abuse (their punishment) as part of the daily routine. The fact women have no power to stop the atrocity, places them as forever vulnerable and powerless. Not being able to stand up for themselves, leads to a reduced version, thus the struggle for identity continues. Ironically, both men behave in ways that are ethically shameful. To protect their names in order to meet their own ideas of social expectations, they neglect or even abuse their offspring and wives, sacrificing the welfare of those around them in order to save face. Influence of War When Mariam finds a flyer, expressing the new regulations the Taliban are implementing. There is one section devoted entirely to women Attention women, as though they need extra ruling. The rules are written as a list, which highlights the extent to which women are being controlled; there is literally no way for them to escape. Some of the include You will not speak unless spoken to and You will not laugh in public and have to be accompanied by a male relatives. The Taliban completely removes their independence, allowing them to be dominated and treated as sub-humans (their identity gone). The nicest consequence for violation of the rules is being severely beaten. The fact this is written publically, shows societys treatment attitude towards women; they are worthless, undeserving of equality. This was all meant to safeguard their honour, but in fact it was a way to control society, inducing too much fear for there to be ever a chance of rebellion. Language Techniques * Short clipped sentences convey a tone that it is very matter of fact. This illustrates how the treatment of women by men is the norm, completely unsurprising. This highlights the struggle for identity as both women and men alike have become so indoctrinated by society ideology, they no longer act as they would do normally. * Use of questions, Do you understand? is almost like a parent would talk to a child, reflecting how men are placed as superior. Women are not given the courtesy of being thought of having a mind of their own. Other Links * The Colour Purple Ceclie is beaten by her husband as it is the norm. She is beaten for being not good enough but in truth he uses her as a way to release his frustration and anger.

Definition of Relief in Geography

Definition of Relief in Geography In geography, a locations relief is the difference between its highest and lowest elevations. For example,  with both mountains and valleys in the area, the local relief of Yosemite National Park is impressive. A two-dimensional relief map displays the topography of a given area. Physical relief maps actually have raised areas that represent different elevations. (You may have seen them in school.) However, if youre going for a hike, theyre not very practical to carry in your pocket. Flat Maps Flat maps represent relief in a variety of ways.  On older flat maps, you may see areas with lines of various thickness to represent variations in the steepness of locations. With this technique, known as  hachuring, the thicker the lines, the steeper the area. As mapmaking evolved, hachuring was replaced by shaded areas that represented variations in the steepness of the land. These types of maps may also show altitude notations at various locations on the map to give viewers some context. Differences in elevation on flat maps can also also be represented using different colors- usually lighter to darker for ascending elevations, with the darkest areas being the farthest above sea level. The drawback with this method is that contours in the land dont show up. Reading Topographic Maps Topographic maps, which also are types of flat maps, use contour lines to represent elevation. These lines connect points that are at the same level, so you know that when you travel from one line to another, you are either going up or down in elevation. The lines also have numbers on them, specifying which elevation is represented by the points connected by that line. The lines maintain a consistent interval between them- such as 100 feet or 50 meters- which will be noted in the maps legend. As the lines get closer together, the land becomes steeper. If the numbers become lower as you move toward the center of an area, they represent the site of a depression and have hash marks on them to distinguish them from hills. Common Uses for Topographic Maps Youll find topographic maps in sporting goods stores or online sites that cater to outdoor enthusiasts. Since topographic maps also display water depths, locations of rapids, waterfalls, dams, boat ramp access points, intermittent streams, wooded marshes and swamps, sand vs. gravel beaches, sandbars, seawalls, breakwaters, dangerous rocks, levees, and mangroves, they are extremely useful to campers, hikers, hunters, and anyone going fishing, rafting, or boating. Topographic maps also show aboveground and buried pipelines, as well as utility and telephone poles, caves, covered reservoirs, cemeteries, mine shafts, open-pit mines, campgrounds, ranger stations, winter recreation areas, and dirt roads that likely wont appear on your basic roadmap. While topography refers to land, a chart that shows the varying depths of water is called  a bathymetric  chart  or  map. In addition to showing depths with lines as on a topographic map, these types of charts may also show differences in depths via color-coding.  Surfers might review bathymetric charts of beaches in order to locate places where waves are likely to break bigger than in other areas (a steep ascent in proximity to a beach means larger waves).

An account of the revolution followed by the coup in egypt with Assignment

An account of the revolution followed by the coup in egypt with elements of the corruption involved in government activities and how they have effected tourism - Assignment Example China experienced widespread student protests in Beijing on June 4 1989, because of the unrest, the population of tourists in hotels was low and travel to Beijing was highly restricted. A double military coup occurred in Fiji in 1987, other countries responded by issuing travel advisories to their citizens. Israel has for a long time been involved in military warfare making it inhospitable for tourists. Therefore, the case in Egypt is not different, the revolution, the coup and prevalent corruption have had diverse effects in the country. The revolution occurred in 2011, followed by the coup two years later in 2013. The Egyptian revolution was marked by mass protests on the streets. Clashes turned bloody resulting in the death of at least 300 people23. Egyptian nationals were pushing for the overthrow of President Hosni Mubarak. Grievances included political issues; economic strains, unemployment, inflation and injustice. The demands were finally met on February, 11th 2011 when President Mubarak put an end to his thirty year old regime by stepping down11. The July 2013 coup came immediately after widespread protests by Egyptian citizens against President Mohamed Morsi. People demanded that Morsi be removed from power, his term in office had lacked success. Coups have never been peaceful. As a result, forceful intergovernmental transition would bring all economic activity to a standstill26. Contrary to the expectations of many Egyptians, the coup led to more problems. From the time of Morsi’s overthrow from power, Egyptians were left fighting for the formation of a legitimate government that would replace military rule. Public servants have been involved in constant revolts over the fact that the government has failed to fulfill its minimum wage promises1. These facts caused negative effects on the country’s revenue-generating sectors, a major constituent being the tourism industry. Inflation became a major economic problem and the rate of unemployment

Hotel Restaurant Management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Hotel Restaurant Management - Research Paper Example Marketing is often a very important part of restaurant management in a hotel environment, as it must become possible to persuade customers of many different lifestyles and backgrounds to choose the in-house restaurant over other external competition. As a manager, it is more than merely ensuring that productivity is high and employee responsibilities are met properly, it is a complicated process that requires ongoing dedication toward building a positive image for the organization in the eyes of customers, employees, and those in higher levels of executive authority. This paper describes several of the different activities that hotel restaurant managers undertake in their roles of leadership, showing how the external environment is strongly linked to the internal environment in order to make every aspect of the restaurant superior to competing food organizations. In addition, the relationship between the manager as a human resources leader and a tangible, cost-focused manager are des cribed. A diverse global travel agency affiliated with AAA Travel, Insight Premium Escorted Vacations, offers, â€Å"great vacations are measured in moments, not miles† (IPEV, 2007, p.10). This statement essentially attempts to offer that regardless of the distance of origin for the travelling consumer, they will remember their experience by their direct contact with those in the hospitality industry and how they perceive quality in each interaction with hotel staff and other in-house representatives. Hotel restaurant managers are exposed to a large volume of different clients who each have different goals for satisfying their vacation or other travel needs. Many of these consumers come from international locations, with widely different socio-economic and cultural backgrounds. Some of these clients, depending on the cost and reputation of

Complete In The Lab 1 Creating Objects for the ECO Clothesline Essay

Complete In The Lab 1 Creating Objects for the ECO Clothesline Database on page AC 66 AC 67 at the end of Access Chapter 1. Perform all steps. Submit the entire database file for grading - Essay Example A string supports a number of characters, mostly letters and symbols (Raghu & Gehrke, 2003). The following field is the first name of the sales rep, which is also a string. After the first name, the next field represents the street where the rep resides. This field is also a string and it supports the entry of numbers and characters. The other field after the street is the city field. This is followed by the state field which is a string, as well. The states’ representation is in the short form. After the states entry the field that follows is the postal code. This code is in an integer field. The other records are the base pay and commission fields. The representation is in decimals. The entries of the values of the commission are dependent on a calculation that is a percentage of all the sales made by that

The nuclear power

The nuclear power Introduction I am writing this essay to debate the idea of having nuclear power developed for future use by us. This takes on a major issue and covers many aspects of my nations energy use both in present and for the future. When we think about nuclear power we do not automatically think of it as a non renewable energy source. This is because it is not part of the fossils fuels; coal, oil and gas, which we all know will not last us as reliable energy sources for much longer. However, nuclear power is a non renewable energy source and Nuclear energy is considered an important fuel to produce energy How is nuclear energy made? Nuclear energy is obtained by processes of nuclear fission and fusion. In nuclear fission the energy is released by splitting the atom sending a neutron blasting through the nucleus, this makes other neutrons fly off at high speeds setting up a chain reaction. Nuclear fusion is the opposite by which the nuclei of two or more atoms fuse together, in the process mass is lost and this is then converted into energy. Production of energy takes place inside a nuclear reactor which consists of a core surrounded by a thick concrete shield, steam pipes, turbines and a final (electricity) generator. After the mining of the ore (this is mainly uranium or plutonium ore) has been done the pure uranium is turned into uranium dioxide which is made into pellets. Several of these pellets are placed inside fuel rods. Usually there are about 90,000 fuel rods placed in the core of a reactor. Nuclear fission takes place inside the core by which the isotope splits using the atoms in the uranium dioxide from the pellets. The immense heat produced by this is carried away by fluid circulating through the reactor core. Once the fluid becomes heated it is used to produce steam, this steam drives the turbines which in turn rotate the main electricity generators to produce clean, reliable electricity. During this process there is a massive amount of radiation and so this is why the core is surrounded by a thick concrete shield to absorb this radiation. Arguments FOR using and developing nuclear power To satisfy our general needs of heating our water, heating our homes, cooking our food, powering our appliances and lighting our rooms, we need to retrieve energy from the many many methods available to us. One of these choices is nuclear energy. There are very good reasons why it should be considered and developed further, to be used in the future. Firstly, by comparing it to the other non renewable energy sources (coal, oil and natural gas), nuclear power is a very clean energy as it does not produce any of the greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, which lead to the greenhouse effect or global warming. This problem is significant for the disintegration of the ozone layer when fossil fuels are burnt to release energy. Plus using this form of energy can save the reserves we have left of some of the precious fossils fuels like oil, which is said to run out within the next 50 years. Because nuclear power already supplies lots of energy, it is also much more reliable at present than many of the renewable options we have available such as wind, solar and wave. A very important point and something that must be considered is that there can be huge amount of energy produced from just a small amount of nuclear element. Just one kilogram of uranium can produce as much energy as 3,000,000 kilograms of coal. Finally, with the nuclear energy economy being one of the safest in the world, producing the cheapest energy, development in the future can provide thousands of jobs and other opportunities of stable employment for many people. Arguments AGAINST using and developing nuclear power As well as the very well argued points agreeing with the future use of nuclear energy, there is opposition to this expansion. There are many people and often groups that raise concerns about the safety of nuclear power. Nuclear waste that is produced from the nuclear power stations emits a very high amount of dangerous radiation that can stay radioactive for up to 25,000 years so it must be disposed of very carefully. Any accident is extremely dangerous and can kill any life in the surrounding area immediately. A case study that shows the extreme risk of development of nuclear power and what can happen if an accident occurs is the 1986 incident in Chernobyl, Russia. Here a nuclear reactor exploded killing 31 people, and around 140,000 people were evacuated as quickly as possible. This area around the explosion was contaminated by radiation and this will remain for a long period of time. The clouds of radioactive material that were also released by the explosion spread, reaching even as far as Sweden. The wind that blew from Chernobyl also came across to Britain and caused acid and other toxic rain that ruined farmland, making the soil radioactive. Farmers are still having problems in parts of Wales because of the radiation that has spread as a result of an accident at a nuclear power plant. Rather than looking at nuclear energys dangers, it also has a few faults. One of these are that a big part of the energy that is created must be blown away because it cannot be used. Nuclear power is also unable to adjust to a lower power production for night. These are faults which not only can cause problems but also inconvenience. Back to the issue of the nuclear waste, focusing away from its safety concerns, and more about where it can be disposed of without causing major problems. As it does stay radioactive for a very long time it must be discarded carefully. The pollution of this waste can cause serious effects on both people and the environment. An example of pollution has been in the Irish sea which was dreadfully polluted by the nuclear waste from the power plant at Sellafield in Cumbria. This fuel should ideally be stored in a safe environment either underground or in special concrete surrounded stainless steel liquid tanks. Another concern that is brought up with nuclear power is the potential for nuclear weapons to be developed. In these weapons would be uncontrolled nuclear fission where even if just a small amount of unstable uranium or plutonium is used, a bomb would explode. If more countries turned to the development of nuclear energy we could be at risk of production of these weapons by countries such those in the Middle East and terrorist groups, some believe it may even lead to a possible nuclear war in the future. Conclusion Looking at all of the arguments for and against the issue of whether nuclear power should be developed for future energy supplies, they are all valid reason that should be taken into account. As for my personal response, I feel that nuclear energy should not be developed as the building of more power plants could cause harmful effects, especially if accidents occur. I feel that the chance of accidents taking place are far more likely if this source of energy is developed. This can lead to the deaths of many lives due to the sheer amount of radiation. Plus looking at the locations of nuclear power plants in the UK, they are mainly in remote areas, for obvious reasons, and also near the sea. More of these can lead to their expansion in more populated areas putting many lives in danger. I also feel that instead of turning to another non renewable energy from fossil fuels, it is far better to invest and research into the development of renewable sources which will give us clean, cheap energy in the future. By looking at changing the technology for these alternatives now, we can help plan for the future. However, if the nuclear industry was developed then when reserves of uranium and plutonium ran out we would once again be searching for other ways. So overall I feel that nuclear energy, although cheap and reliable, is not the best option to be developed for future use, not just in this country but around the world.

Mexico Versus United States Government :: essays research papers

The United States has no more important foreign relation ship than that of which it enjoys with Mexico, and vice versa. These two countries share interwoven societies and economies. Although there have been disagreements and turbulence between the two countries, which partnership is without these? The Strength of each country’s democracy is fundamental to the other’s. This relationship that the two countries share directly affects that lives of millions of Mexican and United States citizens everyday. Recently these two countries have become even more unified than ever before. Tackling issues such as Border Control, Countering Narcotics, Dealing with multiple Law enforcement agencies, Human Rights laws, trade and development, etc. There are many issues that they are mutually interested in and must deal with. Yet, there are some vast differences in which these two countries are run. There are also many similarities, which we must take into account. Both Democratic Govern ments have similar structures, containing a legislative, judicial, and executive branch. Yet, these structures are very different internally, containing specific duties that the other country’s branch may not have. The Executive Branch refers to the Presidential seat in both governments. The Presidency is a paramount institution, not only of the Mexican Government but of the US Government as well. The Countries entire political system is positioned around the presidency. In the United States the President also serves as Commander in Chief of the Armed Forces. The President appoints the cabinet and oversees the various agencies and departments of the Federal Government. The Executive Branch is checked by Congress which would be the Legislative Branch. In order for someone to become President, he or she must be a natural -born citizen of the United States. He or she must be at least 35 years of age and must have resided in the US for at least fourteen years. Once elected, the President must serve a term of four years, and may be re-elected only once. Now, the Executive Branch of the Mexican government is very similar to that of its neighbors, but there are some pivotal differences in the institut ion. Presidents are elected by a majority of registered voters in the thirty-one states and the Federal District. The President holds the formal titles of chief of state, head of government, and commander in chief of armed forces. The candidates must also be at least thirty-five years of age by election day.

Compare main job roles and function in two organisation Essay

Bolton College Principle & Chief Executive: College is to develop a strategy which keeps the College at the forefront of educational innovation and outstanding achievement and which maintains its position within its local community as a key. The Principal will be expected to lead and develop the management team and staff, maintaining at all times. She manages all the department of the college but she have less chain of command. Principle get all feedback from two source i.e. Vice principle (curriculum) & Vice principle (Finance & Resources) Responsibilities of Principle: Provide effective leadership to the College in fulfilling its mission. Determine the College’s academic and other activities. Organise, direct and manage the College and lead the staff, providing inspiring and motivating leadership to those engaged in teaching and training. Vice Principle Vice principals aid the principal in the overall administration of the college. It is often Vice Principle duty to handle matters such as student discipline, parent conference meetings, asset inventory and ordering, school improvement planning, bus and lunch supervision, and teacher observations. Additionally, Vice principals frequently serve as testing coordinators, training staff on procedures related to standard assessment, as well as accounting for testing materials. Most importantly however, in the event that something happens to the principal, such as an extended leave of absence, the vice principal would act as the interim principal. Because of this, many see this position as a stepping-stone to the larger role of principal and is often used as such in Bolton College. Organisation structure, roles and functions (Tarmac) Managers – organise and plan their departments to exceed the expectation of internal and external customers. They work closely with other managers across the company to promote a range of benefits, including; continuous process improvements, improving accuracy, reducing the need to repeat work and driving up efficiency year on year. Supervisors – work with managers to ensure that operators apply procedures and practices consistently. This involves using best practice to create value-added services across the business. Operators – are responsible for day-to-day operations of the business. This is the level at which a university graduate might enter the organisation in order to learn all aspects of the business. The role requires accuracy, efficiency and a high level of individual responsibility. The Operations function at Tarmac is key to overall business performance. This is where a number of processes come together to make the products and services to satisfy customer needs. However, the Operations function needs the support of services in: Finance – to manage the flow of money across the business. Finance managers produce financial and management accounts not only to ensure legal compliance but also to contribute to the strategic decision-making process by forecasting financial performance. Budgets enable Operations to have the resources (raw materials, equipment and people) to carry out processes. Human Resources (HR) this includes planning and forecasting staff requirements and managing recruitment and selection. The HR team ensures that managers apply HR policies and procedures consistently across the business. The development of staff is a key priority within the Tarmac business. Without the right people, Operations may not be able to achieve targets. Additionally, Tarmac also needs the services of: Marketing by understanding customer needs, the marketing function can inform the overall business strategy and ensure that the Tarmac image and brand reflect its high quality. Procurement is the acquisition of goods and/or services at the best possible price. Within Tarmac this function secures cost effective contracts and establishes long term partners to ensure business continuity. IT services install equipment and applications, manage  databases and computer networks to provide the business with strong and effective information and communication channels. M2, Job and Personal specification for Administration. Job description: Job title: Administration Assistant Location: Wallsend Salary:  £13500.00 –  £14500.00 per year Main task: Providing full administration support to a team, including typing of letters, and contract agreements – ideally with experience of Audio typing Recording of invoices for payment Use of both Microsoft Access database and Excel spread sheets Communicating with clients via phone and taking detail information First point of contact for all visitors and callers to the business, including taking and recording accurate phone messages Filing and archiving experience Responsibility for all office machinery and supplies, including refilling photocopiers and fax machines Ordering supplies and stationary on a regular basis Scanning of documentation as requested The role of Administration Assistant is offered on a permanent basis – working full time office hours Mon- Fri Salary  £ 14,000 free parking provided Personal specification: Experience of Microsoft packages, including Word & Excel Excellent communication skills both written and verbal Ability to work as part of a team Accurate keyboard skills Ability to adapt to the challenges of a fast paced commercial business My current Skill & Knowledge: Organised Good communication skills IT skills for data entry Working knowledge of Microsoft Excel are required Maths skills BTEC Level 2 Business What I need to develop: Vocational qualifications in accounting (NVQs/SVQs) or BA in Accountancy Accountancy skills Experiences Time Management — managing one’s own time and the time of others Critical Thinking — Using logic and reasoning to identify the strengths and weaknesses of alternative solutions, Knowledge of business and management principles involved in strategic planning, Negotiation — bringing others together and trying to reconcile differences. Questioning

Doing Good vs. Helping

Doing Good vs. Helping Doing good deeds for people does not always lead to beneficial results. Even if something is done with good intentions, there is always the possibility that it can backfire and actually cause damage. There is a large dependency on what the person doing the deed sees as good. Also, deeds done with good intentions do not always result in wholly good outcomes. Actions can have a positive effect on the situation at hand, but, in turn, have a negative effect on some related situation. There is also the possibility that an action may prevent something better that would have otherwise occurred.When a person tries to help another, the deed that is done might only appear beneficial to the person trying to be generous. For example, when a samurai is defeated in battle but is not killed, rescuing them may appear to be the humane thing to do. However, the samurai would see dying in combat much more honorable than fleeing.I took this photo of a document I ownIn this, point of view is the key fact or in deciding whether or not the action taken is truly good. Giving starving people food from an animal they held sacred would achieve a similar result. If a country wished to ship relief materials, which included beef, into a country highly populated by Hindus, a seemingly good deed could turn disastrous. The Hindus would not only have no use for the meat, but also be offended by the offer because the Hindu people regard the cow as a holy animal. The amount of good that is done is again dictated by point of view. In a milder way, if a person having software issues is using a program that is outdated, a technician might see upgrading to a newer program as the simplest solution. If the user is familiar with...

TURN OF THE SCREW essays

TURN OF THE SCREW essays For as long as recorded history people have been trying to prove and disprove theories on the afterlife of humans. Most believe that the spirits of the dead go either to an exquisite heaven or to the depths of hell. The novel Turn of the Screw by Henry James challenges your beliefs about ghosts and your life after death. During the novel the reader can interpret the book in a variety of ways depending on whether or not you choose to believe in the spirit world coinciding with the world of the living. As the plot starts meandering on an unmarked road, it soon splits into a fork between believing that there are ghosts haunting Bly, or that the governess, whose name remains mysteriously unknown, is mad. The most logical explanation was that the governess did not in fact see a ghost at all. The story unfolds at the gloomy castle of Bly buried deep within the barrens of Britain. As depicted in the book, the castle and the grounds on which the story took place were actually quite beautiful although there seemed to be a sense that queer things could happen. From the beginning this mentality allowed every odd incident to turn into a larger ordeal. In addition, because the governess was raised in a vicarage, she had never really been exposed to the world and had a complete innocence about her. The beliefs taught to her there also contributed to how she dealt with the happenings at Bly. From her teachings she believed completely in ghosts and spirits as well as there being a good and an evil. Since she was trained like this she automatically began looking for ways to incorporate these ideas in her life; Bly being the perfect place. Also her innocence takes a role in her secret infatuation for the master and her employer. When she envisions the so-called ghost on top of the tower while she was taking her stroll he just so happened to be dressed in the masters rather baggy clothing. Could it then be possi...

Research problem Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Problem - Research Paper Example The property in question here does not have any elements related to trade and profit, therefore the owners of the property did not receive any recognized gains. The tax basis for the property under discussion would be such that the owners would be accorded tax-free treatment. Section 1031a of the internal revenue code identifies the basis applicable to a property being exchanged (IRS). The property under discussion here could be treated as tax free because of acquisition within the specified duration of time. The tax basis imposed on properties by the United States tax laws would be excluded in this property. The regulation offers a 45 day period of identification of an exchange property, and 180 day period for acquisition of the property. Since the property under discussion fully complied with these stipulations, the property would receive tax-free treatment. The owners of the new property would not be required to remit any taxes on the new

Should our ethical commitment be determined by the state boundaries Assignment

Should our ethical commitment be determined by the state boundaries - Assignment Example However, there are certain general aspects of ethics which are accepted everywhere in the world. This paper briefly analyses the question; â€Å"Should our ethical commitment be determined by the state boundaries?†. Should our ethical commitment be determined by the state boundaries? â€Å"Values are the rules by which we make decisions about right and wrong, should and shouldn't, good and bad. They also tell us which are more or less important, which is useful when we have to trade off meeting one value over another† (Values, morals and ethics, 2002). Values are different in different societies. For example, Muslims are allowed to keep more than one wife at a time whereas most of the other religions consider such things as sin or unethical behaviour. In other words, values related to sexual activities or marriage is defined differently by different religions. Under such circumstances, the question; whether a Muslim person living in a Christian country should be allowed to keep more than one wife at a time, is relevant. It should be noted that plenty of Muslims are staying in America and Britain like Christian countries. If such Muslims try to follow their customs and traits related to sexual activities while living in overseas countries, the chances of social problems are immense. Same way, same sex marriage is allowed in Canada. â€Å"All same-sex marriages declared legal and valid by Canadian justice minister Rob  Nicholson†(Post media news, 2012). If Canadians try to follow same sex marriage customs while living in another country, social problems may definitely arise. Imagine a situation in which a Canadian male living in Saudi Arabia tries to marry another male while living in Saudi Arabia. â€Å"As per utilitarianism, utility is measured in terms of pleasure and pain† (Crane &Matten, 2007, p.95).. Another argument is that â€Å"Actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness† (Mill, 2004, p.6). It is a fact that same sex marriage provides pleasure to the Canadian, but it provides pain to the society in which these things are unacceptable. In short, it is better to keep ethics and morals within the state boundaries. At the same time, in certain cases, ethics and morals should be allowed to travel beyond the boundaries of states. According to Maccarelli, (2006) â€Å"what a person should do and what a person wants to do are often not compatible† (Maccarelli, 2006). For example, Middle East is a place in which people from all parts of the world are working together. These diverse people have their own beliefs in morals and ethics. Christian workers consider Sundays as sacred days and they always like to have weekly off on that day. On the other hand, Muslims like to have weekly off on Fridays. If a Christian employee asks weekly offs on Sundays, his authorities should consider that demand favorably if possible. Social contract theory says that â€Å"Majority of the humans are self-interested and they will work for preserving their interest. But the law of nature ask commands that each man be willing to pursue peace when others are willing to do the same† (Social Contract Theory, 2004). In other words, the ultimate aim or objective of ethics and morality is to promote peace and harmony across the world. In that sense, it is better to keep unacceptable ethical behaviours within the boundaries of

The Democratic Republic of Congo Research Paper

The Democratic Republic of Congo - Research Paper Example This paper is a critical evaluation of the country’s history, specifically, of the armed conflict which occurred between 1998 and 2003, as well as of the two most recent general elections that have been conducted in the country. The Second Congo War (1998-2003) The Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is a country which has had a share of civil conflicts, most importantly, the Second Congo War. This is a war that started in August 1998 and ended in 2003, and at which more than 5 million people lost their lives (Prunier, 2008). It is believed that a significant number of these victims died as a result of hunger and malnutrition as well as of diseases such as malaria and diarrhea among others. Some sources term this war as the African World War based on the fact that the fighting was not exclusively among the Congo people. It may be important to state that other countries such as Rwanda, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Angola, Sudan, Chad and Namibia were actively involved in this conflict, hen ce the reason why some refer it to as the African World War in comparison to WW1 and WW2 whereby different countries formed coalitions to support each other (Prunier, 2008). The root causes of this war were largely based on the events of the first Congo war (Turner, 2007). Zaire, as the country was previously called, was under the authoritarian rule of Mobutu Seseseko for the period between 1965 and 1997, and this had motivated the formation of rebel groups with the intent of overthrowing Mobutu. During this period, too, Rwanda, a neighboring country, experienced a genocide which resulted in the fleeing of members of the Hutu community into the then Zaire, who resided in refugee camps. These people were the prime targets of violence orchestrated by the Tutsis and after fleeing into Zaire, they formed rebel groups, especially Interahamwe, which continued to level attacks on Tutsis in Rwanda. Later, the Zairian forces joined hands with these militia groups to attack Tutsis in Zaire, a nd this compelled the Rwandan government to provide military aid to the antigovernment forces in Zaire in order to remove Mobutu from power, after which someone friendly to them would be installed as president so as to be able to crush the rebel groups (Prunier, 2008). This person happened to be Laurent Kabila, who had been in the forefront for a long time in the fight to remove Mobutu from power. On the other hand, Uganda was interested in the vast resources present in the country and therefore, they also wanted Mobutu to be out of the picture and to achieve this, they joined rebel forces and other politicians in a military campaign to overthrow the then government whose popularity, in the region, was dwindling day after day (Clark, 2002). In May 1997, Mobutu lost the battle and fled the country, after which Laurent Kabila declared himself as president and changed the country’s name from Zaire to DRC. However, after the successful removal of Mobutu from power, the Rwandan an d Ugandan forces remained in the country, which made it difficult for Kabila to exercise authority as president. This was made worse by the fact that Kabila’s government was full of Tutsis, whom he had appointed to senior positions such as the chief of staff, his personal secretary, and minister for foreign affairs among others. Due to internal pressure and his suspicion that the Rwandan gover